The Russian Revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Russian Revolution - Essay Example The thirst for equal opportunities that the French Revolution inculcated in people also was one of the major reasons for the development and growth of democratic institutions of power in the world. This was seen in another revolution that took place during the twentieth century, the Russian Revolution that ended the reign of the tsars in Russia and paved the way for governments that would be based on the consent of the people of Russia. The Russian Revolution managed not only to wrest power from the Tsar but also to place it in the hands of the Bolsheviks and not in the hands of any emperor as in the case of the French Revolution when power finally ended up in the hands of Napoleon, who in a sense perverted the goals of the revolution by installing himself as the emperor of France and not upholding the ideals of the French Revolution. There are several similarities between the Russian and the French Revolutions. Both were very important events in their own times and were important in shaping the future of the world. The Russian revolution not only affirmed the world’s growing faith in democracy and rejection of autocracy but also signaled a willingness to focus on the welfare of the masses of a nation and not on the diplomatic concerns of a country. The unwillingness of the Russian people to be a part of wars was seen in the lack of popular support for the First World War and the dissent that had started to breed in the masses after the setbacks that Russia had to face during the First World War. This is similar to the French revolution in two ways. The French revolution too had a great impact on the world and its main rival, Britain felt the shockwaves of the revolution throughout the period of the Regency and the Victorian age. The fear of a revolution can be seen in the literature of this period that in some cases valorizes the revolution and in others mocks and satirizes it as an ineffectual tool for social change. The French Revolution with its slog an of â€Å"Liberte, egalite, fraternite† (liberty, equality and fraternity) caused people around the world to harbor dreams of a utopia where the lords and the peasants would be able to live as equals and share the produce of the land equally with enough for all. Like the French Revolution which made not only the French but also people of other countries clamor for freedom from autocracy, the Russian Revolution too made the claims for freedom that countries under the yoke of imperialism had been making for many years. Apart from this, the resentment of the French public was due not only to the misery that they were facing but also due to the recognition that their country had been spending their money unwisely by helping the Americans in their war for independence. This expenditure was thought of as a waste of money by thy emergent class of the bourgeois who were at the forefront of the revolution. As in the French Revolution, it was a concern for the faltering economy of th e country that was one of the major reasons for the Russian Revolution. The emergence of a bourgeois mentality in the people can be considered as a reason for the sudden uprisings that took place during this time even though the Bolsheviks were overtly Marxist in their approach to the topic of governance. Awareness and concern regarding the manner in which the national revenues were being spent and dealt with, is an indication of the increasing desire for control that the middle classes of both France and Russia felt during their respective

Planning For Wealth, Retirement and the Great Beyond Case Study

Planning For Wealth, Retirement and the Great Beyond - Case Study Example as specified in the case study of the family is inclusive of the registered retirement savings plan of 650,000 dollars as well as the 150,000 dollars that are unused in the registered retirement savings plan. The market value of the home is estimated to be 900,000 dollars .the value is considered to inflate in the future (Roseman 2002). The investment advisor is expected to help in working out a realistic plan that will enable achievement of the goals pertaining to the long term investments. The realization now is that it will be hard to rely on the Old Age Security or the Canada Pension Plan or the employers Pension Plan to meet the expenses that emerge after the retirement. With that in mind, the time to build an investment portfolio that will help manage and support the life after retirement would be now. Having a trust company is a benefit especially when the company is the executor or the trustee (Currie, Chambers, and Brown 2001). When determining the personal asset, a variety of assets may be considered. For instance in the case presented, the family owns a home that is valued at 900,000dollars that is expected to inflate, they also own investments ranging from the real to non real that are worth a lot of money. The spouse also has an investment that will pay later. The expense that incurred includes the 90,000 dollars annual expenses and the mortgage that will be paid for the next eight years. The investment totals to 2.205 million dollars (Currie, Chambers, and Brown 2001). Having acquired the investment portfolio required, the projections for future income can hence be formulated. For instance, the sources of income after the retirement include the pension plan from the employer. Out of the salary paid, the contribution to the pension plan will be 6 percent... The case presented represents the family of a mature family. The priorities and needs of such a family have changed. This is evidenced by maturity of the children where two of them are in their twenties and have already been employed and the last one is in adolescent, due to Finish University in three years. The issue of guardian ship is not there. This stage is also marked by peak earnings years and accumulation of many considerable assets. This part requires assessing of the financial status, the personal and life goals and needs and also assessing the priorities of life now. This report makes a conclusion that life on earth is not guaranteed. Therefore, once one has died, there is the need for the estate to be managed and the property taken care of. This is the sole purpose of the will. The checklist needed in ascertaining a will includes preparation and signing of the power of attorney for the financial affairs and running of the real estate. According to Gray& budd one needs to ascertain whether the will and the power of attorney are up to date. One needs to take steps to ensure protection of the assets bought in the relationship. The will also entails naming the beneficiaries and the alternate beneficiaries of the registered retirement savings pan, the life insurance policies, the pension plans and RRIFs. These should always be up to date. The will also entails the backup executor and the back up power of attorney. All the dependants should be well provided for.

Eviewing The Nhs And Community Care Act Social Work Essay

Eviewing The Nhs And Community Care Act Social Work Essay Since the establishment of the Welfare State in the 1940s, the National Health Service and Community Care Act is among some of the most important laws in health and social services in Britain (Adams, 2002). Its policies, based around autonomy, empowerment and choice was supported by many writers who saw it as the cure to alleviate the deep and destructive problems encountered by social care (Levick, 1992). This paper will seek to explain the impact that subsequent social policy has had on social work practice and that of the experiences of older people since the inception of the 1990 NHSCCA. The paper will attempt to analyse the range of services available to older people before and after the 1990 Act and examine some of the main policies of the Act. The term community care was first coined in the 1960s and was originally used to describe the relocating of people from psychiatric surroundings into less institutionalised ones (Thomas and Pierson 2002). Prior to this, however, community care policy was derived from 18th Century Poor Law, which was the only legislation to meet the needs of older people, until the introduction of the National Health Act 1946 and National Assistance Act 1948 (Wilson, Ruch, Lymbery and Cooper, 2008). However, despite the new Acts, which helped to create a different world for social care (Wilson et al. 2008: 623), Townsend (1962, cited in Wilson et al 2008) reported that there was little social care provision for older people in the immediate post-war period other than residential care, which Townsend claimed clearly varied in quality. Furthermore, Beech and Ray (2009) argue that past policies have not considered the diverse needs of growing old and the number of physical, emotional and psychological ch anges that are faced by older people. Subsequent post war governments became increasingly sympathetic in the shifting of care services from residential settings to community based, which became a priority of the (1979-97) Conservative government (Adams, 2002). By the mid 1980s, many political commentators and professionals were calling for policies which involved the replacement of inappropriate residential care, which was still as Townsend had commented in the 1960s as variable in quality, and the introduction of high quality community care (Adams, 2002). Adams adds that it was hoped that community care would tackle the segregation, isolation and the stigmatisation felt by older people who may have been institutionalised for long periods of time. However, Adams (2002) points out, once the Conservative government had brought about the privatisation of public services, which included a programme of social security financing that in effect, encouraged older people to enter residential care and simultaneously leave communi ty care services under-developed due to a lack of public investment. The Audit Commission (1986) heavily criticized community care and the government appointed Sir Roy Griffiths to report on the future of community based services. This led to the Government White Paper Caring for People (Department of Health, 1989a) which ultimately transformed local authority social services departments from providers to purchasers of services to create a market economy. This had an effect on front line social workers as they were involved more in the care management of older people, like assessing needs and devising care packages (Adams, 2002). Holloway (2008: 315) supports this and claims that a common complaint among practitioners is were not social workers anymore, were just care managers. This led to a contract culture with the marketisation of the public sector where social service departments would need to commission and monitor services carried out by outside agencies (Department of Health, 1989: 23). Furthermore, social workers were more often removed from direct work with service users and there was a sharper focus and greater accountability, coupled with constraints on resources and gatekeeping for those who are in the greatest need (Levin and Webb, 1997). The NHSCCA (1990) increased the recognition of the need for community care and health care to become partners in services and to include voluntary agencies and housing departments, which heralded developing policy philosophy after 1990 (Braye and Carr, 2008). Furthermore, there was a belief that service users should have more control of the services available to them and being able to purchase the services they want, as opposed to not taking part in decisions regarding services provided for them (Braye and Carr, 2008). Another significant policy development for older people, explained by Wilson et al. (2008), was the National Service Framework for Older People which placed an emphasis on independence and autonomy. To increase the levels of independence, intermediate care; which was initially outlined in the NHS Plan (DoH, 2000) was brought about in a bid to reduce the number of days older people spent in hospital and as Lymbery (2005) points out, was often an unwanted and expensive form of treatment. Policy dilemmas are evident in the national eligibility criteria, Fair Access to Care Services (DH, 2002), which is a framework to ensure equality of access to people in need of social work intervention (Beech and Ray, 2009). Due to financial constraints, the needs of older people are only being met if they fall into the critical or substantial (CSCI, 2008). Furthermore, as Lymbery (2005) points out, older people experience negative effects with regards to access to services and options due to current policy, despite emphasising promoting independence, through the eligibility criteria, doubt surrounding the privatisation of services and the rules of assessment. This paper has charted some significant policies and services available to older people before and after the NHSCCA (1990) and has found that despite privatisation and the rhetoric of independence and promotion of choice, some key implications have materialised for older people. However, despite the Act, the paper suggests there are tensions between limited resources and unlimited needs with the role of social work changing from provider to enabler. This has had some practitioners comment that they are now care managers rather than social workers due to there being less direct work with service users and more work creating care packages.

Free College Essays - Shakespeares Sonnet 76 :: Sonnet essays

Sonnet #76 Sonnet #76 is in the section of Shakespeare's sonnets generally accepted as being written to the "fair young man." However, there is no clear indication within this sonnet to identify its recipient. The form is consistent iambic pentameter with an abab,cdcd,efef,gg rhyme scheme. The basic argument of this sonnet is the power of the sonnet itself as a lasting expression of love. In the first quatrain, the poet questions himself about his poetic style. He makes reference to it being "barren" (unproductive, dry, lacking richness or interest) of "new pride" which is an archaic expression for "ornament." He questions the lack of variety or innovation. Then he asks himself why he doesn't follow the current fads (trends) and new methods of expression. Within these lines the poet begins on a path of self-examination into what he is doing specifically in writing sonnets to express his love. These thoughts are further explored in the next quatrain. The poet asks why he writes always in the same form and style keeping his creative imagination tied to a well-known form. This form is the sonnet which fits the poetic style of the writer in the same way as a garment worn frequently enough to be recognized (therefore, a comfortable garment). The poet feels every word he writes reveals his identity because of the identification of the style and manner of word usage with himself. As a child who resembles his or her parent, his way with words is easily identified. Taking this further, just as a parent cannot disown his child as his true offspring, the poet cannot deny the sonnet as his own true form of expression. In the final quatrain, the poet tells his recipient that he always writes on one theme--his love and the one he loves. For this reason, the poet finds his best tool in reworking his words and the familiar form of the sonnet. Even as a child is a form of expressing true love (an idea from the early sonnets), his sonnets as his offspring express the poet's feelings in his own unique way. He may have to reuse words and images but he hopes that each new time he can improve the word combinations and embellishments to heighten his attempt to communicate love. The final couplet brings forth the idea that as the sun rises new each day with all its bright freshness while at the same time it is as old as creation, so the poet's love sonnets are both new and old in what they are saying.

Problem †Based Learning in Teaching and Learning High School Geometry: Its Effects on Students’ Attitude and Performance

CHAPTER 1 The Problem and Its Setting INTRODUCTION Rationale New mathematics are discovered and invented everyday and there is a great manifestation of growing recognition of the need among the mathematics educators to increase the emphasis placed on problem solving for all students. (Paja 2001). Mathematics evolved over the past few thousand years in many stages. In high school mathematics in Philippine settings involve elementary algebra, intermediate algebra, geometry and advanced algebra.All of these were center in answering questions about real life. Ordinary people of all ages are endeavor of mathematics in which they constructs concepts, discover relationships, invent methods, execute algorithms, communicate and solve problems posed by their own real worlds. (Cangelosis, as quoted by Paja 2001). Often times, mathematics is a difficult subject for students who has difficulty in memorizing formulas and using logical thinking.Students learn hardly anything of what they are taught but if they learn through hands on and minds on approach (Paja, 2001) and if it will incorporate into everyday activities and in subjects like languages arts, science, social studies, visual arts, music, physical education, life skills and performing arts. Posadas, as quoted by Paja 2001 said that they will learn more meaningfully and with longer retention. Students in today’s generation are practical work learners, investigational learners and sociable learner.In relevant to that mathematics educators should explore another strategy of teaching that caters the needs of the students that we have today. According to Paja 2001 in his study on Practical Work Strategy in Teaching and Learning Plane Geometry: Its Effects on Students’ Achievement says that utilizing practical work strategy in teaching and learning plane geometry with the aid of manipulative materials has more reaching effect on students’ achievement in mathematical content and process skills than the traditional.Problem – based learning is a student centered instructional strategy in which student collaboratively solves problems and reflects on their experiences. (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Problem-based_learing). Dewey proposed that education should be built on the child’s interests and experiences (Ernest, 1991). Education becomes meaningful and real to students when it is connected to them personally, as opposed to using materials that may be abstract and unrelated to a child’s lived reality. (Douglas, 1994).In today’s world of education, lots of researches that conducted promoting and encouraging active learning in mathematics. But still we are searching for other methods in teaching mathematics. In a particular University of Cebu – Main High School Department focuses merely on the tasks of improving students’ competence on conceptual knowledge. In teaching mathematics is usually it is a teacher – centered because less at tempts for students to be involve in every class interaction, performing mathematical processes through investigation and discovery thus enhancing mathematics procedural skills.This study aims to determine the effectiveness of problem – based learning on students’ attitude and performance in high school geometry in which we seek other strategy that caters the kind of learners that we have. It provide teachers with suggested teaching strategies that would greatly influence student’s motivation and enthusiasm as they develop deep understanding of the challenging topics in mathematics. This study also offers a strategy that designed for individual learning and it encouraged to take responsibility of their group and organize and direct learning process with support from an instructor.Problem – based learning is used to enhance content knowledge and foster the development of communication, problem – solving and self direction learning skills. THEORETICA L BACKGROUND Problem – based learning (PBL) is an approach to structuring the curriculum which involves confronting students with problems from practice which provide a stimulus for learning. (Buod and Feletti, 1991). They used to enhance content knowledge and foster the development of communication, problem – solving and self directed learning skills.In PBL classes, students also summarize and present their solutions in a culminating experience. The principle role of the teacher in PBL is that of a facilitator or educational coach guiding the learners in the PBL process. Educator is not the sole resource of information, but instead guides students as they search out appropriate resources. Problem – Based Learning (PBL) is a student – centered instructional strategy in which students collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experiences, rather than learn primarily through lectures or textbooks.Problem – based learning require the develop ment of a number of component competences, such as the skills of communication, critical reasoning, logical and analytical approach to problems, reasoned decision making and self – evaluation. (Buod and Feletti, 1991). Engel sees problem – based learning as a means of developing learning for capability rather than learning for the sake of acquiring knowledge. The effectiveness of the PBL depends on the nature of student engagement and the culture of the classroom, as well as the appropriateness of the problem tasks assigned.Proponents of PBL believe that when students develop their own problem – solving procedures, they are integrating their conceptual knowledge with their procedural skills. (Gilo, 2008). In 1960’s at McMaster Medical School, the PBL approach was started wherein the approach developed by the faculty out of the perceived need to produce graduates who were prepared to deal with the information explosion and who could think critically and so lve complex problems. This institution developed its entire curriculum around PBL. (Buod and Feletti, 1991).However medicine has also been among the pioneers in the application of problem based learning as a means towards rectifying the existing situation in undergraduate medical education (Spaulding as quoted by Buod and Feletti, 1991) and post graduate medical education (Jack and Engel as quoted by Buod and Feletti, 1991). Soon after medicine schools adopted PBL as their center of instruction not later other fields will be using problem – based learning in teaching. The movement has extended into the K-12 arena as well. Camp, 1996). Educators and administrators of the institution wanted students who could think critically, solve problems and work in teams. And many undergraduate institutions began to develop PBL programs and curricula. Aalaborg has one of the most comprehensive undergraduate PBL curriculum, and Maastricnt also has a develop PBL program of study. More recent ly, in the U. S. , the University of Delaware has turned attention toward Problem – based learning, as has Samford University in Birminghan, Alabama.In addition to these more comprehensive efforts, individual faculty members at more than 300 institutions are using PBL at the undergraduate level (PBL insight, p. 7 as quoted by Gilo, 2008). Through the researches conducted in medical school, we can formulate expectations about the outcomes of problem – based learning. Medical researchers show that problem – based learning provides students with the opportunity to gain theory and content knowledge and comprehension.According to Schmidt cognitive effects of problem – based learning are the following: (a) initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion, (b) elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information, (c) restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network, (d) social knowl edge construction, (e) learning in context, and (f) stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem. Constructivism and Problem – Based LearningConstructivism is a philosophical view on how we come to understand or know. It is, in our mind, most closely attuned to the pragmatic philosophy of Richard Rorty (1991) as quoted Duffy and Savery, 2001. We will characterize the philosophical view in terms of three primary propositions by Rorty (1991) as well as vonGlaserfeld (1989). Firstly, understanding is in our interactions with the environment. This is the core concept of constructivism. We cannot talk about what is learned separately from how it is learned, as if a variety of experiences all lead to the same understanding.Learning takes place only through self – activity. (Froebel 1976). Dewey proposed that education should built on the child’s interests and experiences. (Ernest as quoted by Douglas, 1994). Since understanding is an individu al construction, we cannot share understandings but rather we can test the degree to which our individual understandings are compatible. An implication of this proposition is that cognition is not just within the individual but rather it is a part of the entire context. (Savery and Duffy, 2001).Secondly, cognitive conflict or puzzlement is the stimulus for learning and determines the organization and nature of what is learned. When we are in a learning environment, there is some stimulus or goal for learning — the learner has a purpose for being there. That goal is not only the stimulus for learning, but it is a primary factor in determining what the learner attends to, what prior experience the learner brings to bear in constructing an understanding, and, basically, what understanding is eventually constructed.In Dewey's terms it is the â€Å"problematic† that leads to and is the organizer for learning (Dewey, 1938: Savery and Duffy,2001). For Piaget it is the need fo r accommodation when current experience cannot be assimilated in existing schema (Piaget, 1977; Savery and Duffy, 2001). Lastly, knowledge evolves through social negotiation and through the evaluation of the viability of individual understandings. The social environment is critical to the development of our individual understanding as well as to the development of the body of propositions we call knowledge.At the individual level, other individuals are a primary mechanism for testing our understanding. Collaborative groups are important because we can test our own understanding and examine the understanding of others as a mechanism for enriching, interweaving, and expanding our understanding of particular issues or phenomena. As vonGlaserfeld (1989) has noted, other people are the greatest source of alternative views to challenge our current views and hence to serve as the source of puzzlement that stimulates new learning.In PBL, students learn content, strategies and self – directed learning skills through collaboratively solving problems, reflecting on their experiences, and engaging in self – directed inquiry. It established principles of learning which have been explained through observation and research over the past century, principles such as motivation, relevance, practice, active learning and contextual learning operate significantly in a PBL environment, and to a much lesser extent in conventional curricula.Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of the Theoretical – Conceptual Framework of the Study THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem The main purpose of this study was to determine the effects of problem – based learning on students’ attitude and performance in high school geometry to the third year students of University of Cebu – Main, Cebu City of the school year 2010 – 2011. Specifically, the study sought to determine the following: 1. The profile of the students’ performance in the control group and the experimental group during the pre – test in terms of their high school geometry performance. . The profile of the students’ performance in the control group and the experimental group during the post – test in terms of their high school geometry performance. 3. The significant mean gain between the pre – test and post – test high school geometry performance profile of the students in the control group and the students in the experimental group. 4. The significant mean gain difference between the control and the experimental group’s performance in their high school geometry performance. . The significant change of the attitude towards mathematics before and after the exposure to the traditional teaching among the third year high school students of University of Cebu in the control group. 6. The significant change of the attitude towards mathematics before and after the exposure to the problem – based learning among the third year h igh school students of University of Cebu in the experimental group. Statement of HypothesesHo1: There is no significant difference between the hypothetical mean and the actual mean of the control group and the experimental group during the pre – test in terms of their high school geometry performance. Ho2: There is no significant difference between the hypothetical mean and the actual mean of the control group and the experimental group during the post – test in terms of their high school geometry performance. Ho3: There is no significant mean gain between the pre – test and post – test high school geometry performance profile of the students in the control group and the students in the experimental group.Ho4: There is no significant mean gain difference between the control and the experimental group’s performance in their high school geometry performance. Ho5: There is no significant change of the attitude towards mathematics before and after the exposure to the traditional teaching among the third year high school students of University of Cebu in the control group. Ho6: The significant change of the attitude towards mathematics before and after the exposure to the problem – based learning among the third year high school students of University of Cebu in the experimental group.Significance of the Study The effects of problem – based learning on students’ attitude and performance in high school geometry to improve classroom instruction and the quality of education rendered to continuing growing population. This study will benefit the following individual in learning and teaching mathematics in different approach. Students. The students were the primary reason of this study. They would be directly affected with the benefits of the study since they were the focus of it.Students would be relieved of the conventional classroom structure which they perceive as boring and unmotivating. They are given highly appropriate learning experiences to build positive attitude and productive individual. Teachers. The findings of this study would be of great help to the teachers not only in mathematics but also in some related areas of concern. Teachers at all levels would be able to select appropriate teaching techniques that complement problem – based learning. School Administrators.School administrators would likewise be benefited by the outcomes of the study and would capture an insight and opportunity to include in the present scope of the mathematics program and help improve the curricular content to adopt students’ level of learning with the same weight, being in the position, they have the chance to persuade the teachers to adopt problem – based learning as part of students’ learning experiences. Curriculum Writers. The result of this study would also enable the curriculum writers to redesign or restructure curriculum materials which could better facilitate math ematics learning through problem – based earning. Scope and Delimitation Content Delimitation The area of the study was the level of performance in high school geometry and the attitudes towards problem – based learning of the third year high school students of University of Cebu High School Department – Main Campus in the school year 2010 – 2011. Place Delimitation This study was limited to University of Cebu High School Department – Main Campus located in corner Sanciangko and Juan Luna Streets, Cebu City. Time Delimitation The study conducted in the school year 2010 – 2011.Subject and Area Delimitation The subjects of the study were the selected third year high students of University of Cebu High School Department – Main Campus in the school year 2010 – 2011. Chapter 2 Related Literature and Studies Observed that teachers are now being encouraged to move away from a tradition of teaching methods that are mechanistic in natur e and inappropriate to the ways students learn into a constructivist approach where active learning is emphasized. (Alindada, 199 as quoted in Paja, 2001).A teaching working from a multiculture, social – reconstructivist approach attempts to create a learning environment that is as democratic and open as the power asymmetries of the classroom allow, but with explicit recognition of this asymmetry. (Ernest 1991 as quoted by Douglas, 1994). Mathematics is our general education component that entails enriching a personal knowledge of the students that includes the opportunity to develop the power to explore, make conjecture and reason logically. This component helps students to become broadly educated, creative, cultured, morally pright and productive citizens. (Paja, 2001). Mathematics as an interdisciplinary language and tool. Mathematics can be used to help represent, communicate about, and solve problems in many different disciplines. Many jobs and other aspects of responsib le adult life in our society require some mathematical knowledge and skills. Problem – Based Learning , which encourages students to work in groups to carry out research and think independently to solve problems, is growing into an international movement. Moncure, 2005). According to Stephien and Rosenthal (1992) that PBL instruction is designed to provide students with a guided experiences in solving an ill – structured problem. It orienting students toward meaning – making over fact – collecting. They learn via contextualized problem sets and situation. (Rhem, 1998). Ulmer says, this approach gives students immediate feedback. â€Å"It keeps a constant flow going between teacher and student, and you cant’t put a price tag on that. According to the study of Gilo (2008), that PBL can produce socially responsible citizens. This gives the youth a sense of awareness and participation in the community. They love the challenge being the problem solvers and it gives a sense of accomplishment for having been part of the society they belong. PBL is a motivating way to learn as learners are involved in active learning, working with real problems and what they have to learn in their study is seen as important and relevant to their own lives. (http://www. bli. org/pbl/pbl. htm). According to Spence that problem based learning gives you opportunities to examine and try out what you already know; discover what you need to learn; develop your people skills for achieving higher performance in teams; improve your writing and speaking abilities, to state and defend with sound arguments and evidence your own ideas; and to become more flexible in your approach to problems that surprise and dismay others. Despite the work and effort it requires, PBL is never dull and is often fun.Problem – Based Learning proponents emphasize that it improves thinking and learning skills and cognitive abilities in students. It has been reported that PBL à ¢â‚¬â€œ trained students are more frequent users of libraries and other information resources, which support independent learning. They acquire life long study skills, especially in their early years of study, giving rise to sustained learning. PBL educated students have a more holistic approach to their subject, more readily integrate new information, adapt to change and work well as member of a team.Generally PBL appears to increase students interest and enjoyment to the subject and enhance their professional development. (Gilo, 2008). Chapter 3 Research Methodology Methodology This study utilized the quasi – experimental method with a content group and an experimental group using the pre – post tests. The quasi – experimental method was used since the subjects in each group were matched in terms of some selected variables such as classroom setting, classroom environment, instruction and academic performance. The study conducted on the second quarter grade.The two groups were given the pre – test on solid figures and its measurements to determine the mathematical achievement of each student. Intervention took place after conducting the pre – test which lasted for two weeks. The traditional way of teaching was given to the control group and the problem – based learning for the experimental group. After four weeks of experimentation a post – test was administered to determine the changes in their performance in high school geometry specifically in solid figures and its measurements.Research Environment This research was conducted in University of Cebu – High School Department Main Campus is located at the corner of Sanciangko and Juan Luna Streets, Cebu City. It is private non – sectarian institution of higher learning. It provides the learners with the essential knowledge, skills and attitudes that allow them to improve their quality of life and increase their opportunities to participate in and b enefit from social and economic development.It aspires to provide the learners with academic, scientific, technical and vocational, knowledge, skills and attitudes essential in meeting the demands of time, enhance the individuals emotional, social – cultural and spiritual needs; deeper the learners’ awareness and willingness to be pro – active in community projects and activities including environment protection and preservation, produce graduates who are highly qualified for the world of work. And as testament of its desire to provide est education for the masses, it is now the fastest growing university, if not the most dynamic among all the universities in the city of Cebu in terms of the number of students coming from public and private schools in urban or rural areas. Research Respondents The subjects of the study were the 82 selected third year high school students of University of Cebu – Main who are enrolled in the school year 2010 – 2011. Table 1 The Population of the Study Year and Section |Total Population |Research Population | | | |Sample (n) |Percent (%) | |III – Sapphire |41 |41 |100 | |(Control Group) | | | | |III – Jade |41 |41 |100 | |(Experimental Group) | | | | As indicated in the Table 1, the sections of third year classes were the groups under treatment of the study. The III – Sapphire class with 41 students composed the control group while III – Jade class with 41 students constituted the experimental group.Research Instruments The instruments in this study were the Mathematics Performance Test and an adopted Mathematics Attitude Scale. The achievement test was a teacher – made test about the high school geometry particularly solid figures and its measurement. To measure students’ attitude in mathematics, Mathematics Attitude Scale was used. This mathematics attitude scale was adopted from the study of Ruyca, 1994. It consisted of 20 positive and negative state ments. This attitude questionnaire is a 5 – point Likert scale to which the subjects indicate SA for strongly agree, A for agree, U for undecided, D for disagree and SD for strongly disagree.For reliability of the said test, split – half method was used. A coefficient of correlation of 0. 74 described that the test was highly reliable. Research Procedures The procedures of the study were done through data gathering and treatment of data. Data Gathering The researcher secured a written permit with the approval of the high school principal of University of Cebu –Main Campus. After the written permits signed and approved by the authorities, the researcher administered a 40 – item teacher – made test to the 40 third year high school students of University of Cebu – Main who are not respondents of the study to establish the validity of the test.When the test was found to be reliable and valid, a pre – test was administered to the actual re spondents, the third years Sapphire (control group and Jade (experimental group), a week before the experimentation started. The permit is found in appendix A. The III – Sapphire and III – Jade are the target subjects of the study. The III – Sapphire as the control group, which was exposed to traditional method; III – Jade served as the experimental group, which exposed to problem – based learning. In traditional way of teaching, lessons were presented by way of lecture, discussion and demonstration. Follow – up exercises were given in a form of seatwork and boardwork every after session. In this approach, teachers play an important role in learning process.All the discussions and presentations were delivered by the teacher. The pacing of the lesson depended on the teacher’s evaluation of the students’ performance in their previous activity. Each lesson was taught for not more than two meetings. After a month of experimentation , a post – test was given to evaluate whether the students in the control group gained knowledge in solving the areas, surface area and volume of a plane and solid figures. On the other hand, the 41 III – Jade students were exposed to problem – based learning. In the PBL, the learner will be given a problem and they were attempting to answer it of the information of what they already know.They will identify what they need to learn to better understand the problem an how to resolve it. Once they have worked with the problem and identified what they need to learn, the learners engage in self-directed study to research the information needed by finding and using a variety of information resources (books, journals, reports, online information, and a variety of people with appropriate areas of expertise). The learners then return to the problem and apply what they learned to their work with the problem in order to more fully understand and resolve the problem. After they have finished their problem work the learners assess themselves and each other to develop skills in self-assessment and the constructive assessment of peers.Self-assessment is a skill essential to effective independent learning. The faculty in turn become resources, tutors, and evaluators, guiding the students in their problem solving efforts. To measure the attitude of each student towards mathematics who had some through problem – based learning and traditional method, a Mathematics Attitude Scale the level of interest, feeling, perception and trend of attitude of the student towards high school geometry in both control and experimental groups were gathered. Each student was expected to answer the questions for their Mathematical Attitude Scale. Treatment of Data The data that will be gathered will be treated quantitatively.The following statistical treatments will be utilized for appropriate interpretation: 1. To determine the profile of the students’ performan ce in the control group and the experimental group during the pre – test and post – test in terms of their high school geometry performance, the z – test will be used with the formula: [pic] where: z = z – test value AM = actual mean HM = hypothetical mean SD = standard deviation N = number of cases/students 2. To determine significant mean gain between the pre – test and post – test high school geometry performance profile of the students in the control group and the students in the experimental group, the t – test will be used with the formula: [pic] here: t = t – test value [pic] = mean of the control group [pic] = mean of the experimental group SD1 = standard deviation of the control group SD2 = standard deviation of the experimental group N1 = number of cases of the control group N2 = number of cases of the experimental group 3. To determine the significant mean gain difference between the control and the experimental grou p’s performance in their high school geometry performance, the t – test will be used with the formula: [pic] where: t = t – test for the pre – post mean gain [pic] = mean of the difference SD = standard deviation of the difference N = number of cases 4.To determine the significant change of the attitude towards mathematics before and after the exposure to the problem – based learning among the third year high school students of University of Cebu in the experimental group, the weighted mean will be used with the formula: [pic] where:[pic] = weighted mean f = frequency n = number of cases Level of Significance A 0. 05 level of significance with a two – tailed test of statiscal significance for rejecting or accepting the hypothesis was applied in this study. Definition of Terms This study contains terms and ideas which may vary from its definition. To facilitate a better understanding of the study, some terminologies will be defined based on h ow they are used operationally.Mathematics Attitude refers to the significant contributors of detractors of effective performance. It is the behaviour shown by the students towards performing mathematics. Traditional Method refers to the ways of teaching mathematics used by teachers who depend on the teachers’ manual or textbook. It eliminates students’ experiences that are expected to motivate and sustain interest of the children. Plane Geometry refers to a branch of mathematics dealing with the properties and relations of lines, angles, surface and solids. Problem – Based Learning refers to a student instructional strategy in which students collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experiences.Student Performance refers to the academic achievement of the student specifically mathematics. Chapter 4 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation The presentation, analysis and interpretation of data will be presented after the experimentation of the class wi ll be done and if the data is being gathered. Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusion and Interpretation The summary, conclusion and recommendation of the study will be given after the data is being presented, analyzed and interpreted. Appendix A University of Cebu – Main High School Department Sanciangko Street, Cebu City June 15, 2010 DR. AGAPITO P. PINO JR. High School Principal University of Cebu – Main Sanciangko Street, Cebu City Sir: Greetings.The undersigned has come up with a thesis concept entitled â€Å"PROBLEM – BASED LEARNING IN TEACHING AND LEARNING HIGH SCHOOL GEOMETRY: ITS EFFECTS ON STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE AND PERFORMANCE† In this connection, she would like to request permission to conduct an experimental study with the third year students (III – Sapphire, Control Group and III – Jade, Experimental Group), who are enrolled in school year 2010 – 2011. Your favourable consideration and approval will be highly appreciated. Very truly yours, (Sgd. ) Judy G. Gutang Recommending Approval MARCELO T. LOPEZ (Sgd. ) President, SUC III Cebu Normal University Appendix B Mathematics Attitude Scales (Adopted from Maxima Ruyca) Name: _______________________ Year: ____ Sex: ___ Age: ____ Date: _____Directions: Each of the statement of this opinionnaire expresses a feeling, which a particular person has towards mathematics. Your answer is correct if it expresses your own opinion. This is not a test and you are not to be graded. Do not omit any item. You are to express, on a five – point scale, the extent agreement between the feeling in each statement and your own personal feeling. You are to check the better which indicators how closely you agree or disagree with the statement. The five – point scale are: SA – Strongly Agree; A – Agree; U – Undecided; D – Disagree; SD – Strongly Disagree. | |SA |A |U |D |SD | |1.I am always under a terrible strain in Mathematics | | | | | | |class. | | | | | | |2. I do not like Mathematics and it scares me to have to | | | | | | |take it. | | | | | | |3. Mathematics is very interesting to me and I enjoy | | | | | | |Mathematics course. | | | | | | |4. Mathematics is fascinating and fun. | | | | | | |5.Mathematics makes me feel scared and at same | | | | | | |time it is stimulating. | | | | | | |6. My mind goes blank and I am unable to think clearly | | | | | | |when working with Mathematics. | | | | | | |7. I feel a sense of insecurity when working with | | | | | | |Mathematics. | | | | | | |8. Mathematics makes me feel uncomfortable, restless, | | | | | | |irritable and impatient. | | | | | | | |A |U |D |SD | | | | | | | | | |SA | | | | | |9. The feeling that I have towards Mathematics is a | | | | | | |good feeling. | | | | | | |10. Mathematics makes me feel as if I am lost in a | | | | | | |jungle of numbers and I can’t find my way out. | | | | | |11. Mathematics is stimulating I enjoy a great deal. | | | | | | |12. When I hear the word Mathematics I have a feeling | | | | | | |of dislike. | | | | | | |13. I approach Mathematics with a feeling of hesitation, | | | | | | |resulting from a fear of not being able to do it. | | | | | | |14. I really like mathematics. | | | | | | |15.Mathematics is a course in school, which I have | | | | | | |always enjoyed studying. | | | | | | |16. It makes me nervous to even think about having to | | | | | | |do Mathematics problem. | | | | | | |17. I have never liked Mathematics. | | | | | | |18. I am happier in a Mathematics classes than any | | | | | | |other class. | | | | | | |19.I feel at ease in Mathematics and I like it very much. | | | | | | |20. I feel a definite positive reaction toward | | | | | | |Mathematics and it is enjoyed. | | | | | | UNIVERSITY OF CEBU HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS Examination : Performance TestSubject / Year Level : Mathematics III Number of Items : 40Teacher : Miss Judy G. Gutang |SPECIFIC O BJECTIVES |CONTENTS |TIME FRAME |% ALLOCATION |NO.OF ITEMS |LEARNING DOMAIN |ITEM PLACEMENT |TYPE OF TEST | | Apply formulas in solving problems | | | | |Applying |I. 1 – 10 |Multiple Choice | |involving areas |AREAS |4 hours |25% |11 |Solving | | | |Solve problems on surface areas of | | | | |Applying |I. 11 – 25 |Multiple Choice | |solid figures |SURFACE AREAS |6 hours |37. % |15 |Solving | |Problem Solving | |Solve problems on volumes of solid | | | | |Applying |I. 26 – 40 |Multiple Choice | |figures |VOLUMES |6 hours |37. 5% |14 |Solving | |Problem Solving | |TOTALS | |16 hours |100% |40 | | | |University of Cebu High School Department PERFORMANCE TEST Name: __________________________ Year and Section: __________ Score: ____ I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read each item carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct answer. Use [pic]. 1. Find the area of a circular rug with 8. 5 cm radius. a. 182. 98 cm2b. 196. 68 cm2c. 226. 98 cm2 d. 53. 41 cm2 2. Find the area of a tr apezoid whose altitude is 6 cm and whose bases are 4 cm and 2 cm, respectively. a. 18 cm2b. 12 cm2c. 10 cm2d. 8 cm2 3. A triangle has an area of 65 ft2 and a base of 6 ft. What height corresponds to this base? a. 12 2/3 ftb. 13 2/5 ftc. 18 1/3 ftd. 1 2/3 ft 4. Find the height of a parallelogram whose area is 74 mm2 and a base length of 27 mm. a. 2. 70 mmb. 2. 74 mmc. 2. 47 mmd. 2. 41 mm 5. What is the area of the base in the figure at the right? a. 12 cm2b. 14 cm2 c. 21 cm2 d. 84 cm2 6. A square garden has a perimeter of 43m. What is its area? a. 151. 53 m2b. 151. 56 m2c. 151. 26 m2d. 115. 56 m2 7. The area of the rectangle is 162 in2. How wide is the figure if its 9 in long? a. 12 in b. 16 in c. 18 in d. 20 in 8. What is the area of a 3. 2 ft square board? a. 10. 24 ft2b. 14. 20 ft2c. 41. 20 ft2d. 40. 21 ft2 9. Calculate the area of the shaded region in the figure. a. 8. 34 in2b. 9. 3 in2c. 10. 25 in2d. 11. 43 in2 10. A man is buying a lot for P5,000 per square meter. If the lot is 20 m long and 15 m wide, how much will he pay for it? a. P9. 2Mb. P8. 1Mc. P3. 5Md. P1. 5M 11. How many 4 – inch square tiles are needed to cover a floor whose length is 12 feet and whose width is 8 feet? a. 486 tilesb. 648 tilesc. 684 tilesd. 864 tiles 12. The lateral area of a pyramid is 228 ft2. Find the area of the base if it has a surface area of 372 ft2. a. 84 ft2b. 98 ft2c. 112 ft2d. 144 ft2 13. A volley ball has a diameter of 12 cm. What is its surface area? a. 425. 31 cm2b. 452. 34 cm2c. 452. 39 cm2d. 452. 49 cm2 14.The side of a cube measures 6. 1 cm. How much foil is needed to completely cover its surface? a. 223. 36 cm2b. 226. 98 cm2c. 148. 84 cm2d. 37. 21 cm2 15. The sum of the areas of the bases of a cylinder is [pic] ft2. Find its radius. a. 6ftb. 8 ftc. 10 ftd. 12 ft 16. The side of a cube has length 9 cm. Find its surface area. a. 336 cm2b. 486 cm2c. 508 cm2d. 660 cm2 17. How much plastic is needed to manufacture five plastic balls of radius 2 cm? a. 521. 38 cm2b. 512. 33 cm2c. 215. 38 cm2d. 251. 33 cm2 18. Find the amount of cardboard needed to make a birthday hat with radius 4 in and a slant height of 10 in. a. 125. 7 in2b. 162. 7 in2c. 216. 5 in2d. 261. in2 19. A right cylinder has a lateral area of 2,480 cm2. The height is 16 cm. Find the radius of the cylinder. a. 7. 03 cmb. 8. 07 cmc. 9. 23 cmd. 10. 37 cm 20. The circumference of a basketball is 40. 8408 cm. What is its surface area? a. 453. 93 cm2b. 530. 93 cm2c. 533. 35 cm2d. 563. 53 cm2 21. How much paper is needed for the label of Youngstown sardines having a radius of 2 in and a height of 4. 2 in? a. 52. 78 in2 b. 95. 56 in2c. 99. 25 in2d. 112. 12 in2 22. Which of the statements is TRUE? a. No two spheres have the same volume and surface area. b. The lateral faces of a rectangular prism have two pairs of equal areas. c.The surface area of a sphere is equal to the area of the Great Circle. d. The area of the base of a cone is lwh. 23. What is the radius of a cone whose area o f its base is 22. 46 in2? a. 7. 62 inb. 6. 72 inc. 2. 67 ind. 1. 76 i 24. Two identical cubes, whose volume is 125 cm3, are placed side by side to forma rectangular prism. Find the surface area of the new solid. a. 150 cm2b. 250 cm2c. 350 cm2d. 450 cm2 25. The sum of the area of the bases of a rectangular prism is 120 ft2. How long is the solid if its width is 5 ft? a. 3 ftb. 4 ftc. 5 ft d. 6 ft 26. The surface area of a triangular pyramid, having four congruent faces, is [pic] mm2. How long is the base if its height is [pic]mm. a. ftb. 6 ftc. 8 ftd. 10 ft 27. Which of the following statements is FALSE? a. The ratio of volume of the cone to the volume of the cylinder is 3:1. b. The volume and surface area of a sphere can be equal. c. The volume of an irregular object can be determined by water displacement. d. No two cubes have equal volume. 28. How would the volume of the square pyramid be affected if the height is doubled? a. the sameb. doubledc. tripledd. quadrupled 29. Find the volume of a cube 3 meters high. a. 9m3b. 18 m3c. 27m3d. 54 m3 30. A spherical lollipop has a radius of 1. 5 cm. What is its volume? a. 14. 16 cm3b. 17. 07 cm3c. 28. 26 cm3d. 10. 60 cm3 31.Find the amount of space contained in a book 12 in by 1. 5 in by 6. 1 in. a. 89. 01 in3b. 180. 9 in3c. 109. 80 in3d. 801. 9 in3 32. How much sand is contained in a can whose height is 5 inches and radius is 1. 5 in? a. 53. 32 in3b. 35. 34 in3c. 33. 53 in3d. 52. 33 in3 33. The volume of a pyramid is 20 m3. If its height is 12 cm, find the area of the base. a. 5 cm2b. 10 cm2c. 15 cm2d. 20 cm2 34. The height of a 7. 1 ft by 4. 2 ft waterbed mattress is 2. 5 ft. Find its volume. a. 79. 785 ft3b. 79. 857 ft3c. 79. 758 ft3d. 79. 875 ft3 35. The water content in an aquarium is[pic]. How high is it if it is 2 ft long and 1. 7 ft wide? a. 1. 8 ft b. 2. 4 ftc. 3. 1 ftd. 3. 3 ft 36.A pipeline is 1200 ft long and has a diameter of 4 ft. How much cubic feet of gas can the pipe hold? a. 15,087. 68 ft3b. 17,950. 68 ft3c. 19,057. 86ft3d. 19,571. 68ft3 37. How much greater is the new volume than the original rectangular prism if its height is doubled and its height is halved? a. twiceb. the samec. thriced. can’t be determined 38. The radius and height of an empty Nido can are 4 in and 11. 8in, respectively. How much water it contains if it is one – half full? a. 296. 56 in3b. 296. 67 in3c. 296. 57 in3d. 296. 67 in3 39. A softdrink cup is cylindrical in shape. Its volume is 628 cm3 and the radius is 5cm. How deep is the cup? a. 6 cm b. 8 cmc. 9 cmd. 10 cm 40.A stalactite in Bukilat Cave in Camotes, Cebu is shaped like a cone. It is 2. 5 ft and has a diameter at the roof of 1. 2 ft. Find the volume of the stalactite. a. 2. 83 ft3b. 3. 28 ft3c. 8. 23 ft3d. 8. 32 ft3 CURRICULUM VITAE JUDY G. GUTANG PERSONAL PROFILE Age:25 years old Birth date:March 26, 1985 Sex:Female Civil Status:Single Religion:Roman Catholic Citizenship:Filipino EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Cebu Normal University Maste r of Arts in Education major in Mathematics Units Earned: 27 units Cebu Normal University Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Mathematics Graduated 2006 Don Vicente Rama Memorial National High School (Basak National High School)Graduated 2002 Don Vicente Rama Memorial Elementary School (Basak Elementary School) Graduated 1998 WORK EXPERIENCE University of Cebu – Main Campus High School Teacher (Math) 2007 – present Cebu Normal University Office Clerk – Accounting Department May 29, 2006 – January 1, 2007 Cebu Normal University Student Assistant – Accounting Department January 2003 – September 2005 EXAMINATIONS PASSED Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) Secondary Level – August 2006 SEMINARS/WORKSHOPS ATTENDED Innovations in Classroom Teaching January 31, 2009 Computer Aided Instruction Seminar-Workshop November 29, 2008 Lecture – Forum on Numerical Analysis October 11, 2008Seminar/Workshop on Strategies and Techniques in Teaching Mathematics for High School September 27, 2008 Good Citizenship Values Formation August 30, 2008 Book Launch and Seminar on Teaching Skills and Strategies December 1, 2007 Seminar on Empowering Teachers with Strategies Anchored on Learner- Centered Paradigm October 24, 2007 Lecture-Demonstration on Innovations in Teaching Mathematics August 13, 2007 Restructuring Learning Strategies and Experiences: Paradigm Reflective of the UC Secondary Education Vision-Mission-Goals (Year Three) May 16 – June 8, 2007 Wellness Seminar September 20, 2006 Living Values Education Program January 27 – 29, 2006 Basic Training Course for Unit LeadersSeptember 30 – October 2, 2005 ———————– CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY |Post – test | |Achievement |Attitude | |Pre – test | |Achievement |Attitude | ? Understanding comes from our interaction with our environment. ? Cognitive conflict stimulates learning. ? Knowle dge evolves through social negotiation and evaluation of the viability of individual understanding. Traditional Approach Control Group III – Sapphire Control Group III – Sapphire Problem – Based Learning Experimental Group III – Jade Experimental Group III – Jade Structured Plan in Mathematics (High School Geometry)

Effect on the Economy Essay

Francis Mr. Joseph English 12 26 November 2012 War: Effect on Economy War has influenced economic history profoundly across time and space. Winners of wars have shaped economic institutions and trade patterns. Wars have influenced technological developments. Above all, recurring war has drained wealth, disrupted markets, and depressed economical growth. Wars are expensive (in money and other resources), destructive (of capital and human capital), and disruptive (of trade, resource availability, labor management). Large wars make up severe shocks to the economies of participating countries. Despite some positive aspects of short-term stimulation and long-term destruction and rebuilding, war generally impedes economic development and undermines wealth. Several specific economic effects of war recur across historical eras and locales. Next inflation, the most consistent short-term economic effect of war is to push up prices, and consequently to reduce living standards. This war-induced inflation was described in ancient China by the strategist Sun Tzu: â€Å"Where the army is, prices are high; when prices raise the wealth of the people is exhausted† (Tzu Sun, c. 00 BCE) His advice was to keep wars short and have the money in hand before assembling an army. Paying for wars is a central problem for states (see War Finance). This was especially true in early modern Europe (fifteenth to eighteenth centuries), when war relied heavily on mercenary forces. The king of Spain was advised that waging war required three things – money, money, and more money. Spain and Portugal imported silver and gold from America to pay for armies, but in such large quantities that the value of these metals eventually eroded. One way governments pay for war is to raise taxes (which in turn reduces civilian spending and investment). U. S. revolutionary Thomas Paine warned in 1787 that â€Å"war †¦ has but one thing certain, and that is to increase taxes. † Another way to pay for war is to borrow money, which increases government debt, but war-related debts can drive states into bankruptcy as they did to Spain in 1557 and 1596. A third way to fund war is to print more currency, which fuels inflation. Inflation thus often acts as an indirect ax on a national economy to finance war. Industrial warfare, and especially the two World Wars, created inflationary pressures across large economies. Increasingly, governments mobilized entire societies for war – conscripting labor, bidding up prices in markets for natural resources and industrial goods, and diverting capital and technology from civilian to military applications. World War I caused ruinous inflation as participants broke from the gold standard and issued currency freely. Inflation also accompanied the U. S. Civil War, World War II, and the Vietnam War, among others. War-induced inflation, although strongest in war zones, extends to distant belligerents, such as the United States in the World Wars, and, in major wars, even to neutral countries, owing to trade disruption and scarcities. Present-day wars continue to fuel inflation and drive currencies towards worthlessness. In Angola’s civil war (1975-2002), for example, the government currency became so useless that an alternative â€Å"hard† currency – bottles of beer – came to replace it in many daily transactions. In addition to draining money and resources from participants’ economies, most wars create zones of intense destruction of capital such as farms, factories, and cities. These effects severely depress economic output. The famine and plague that accompanied the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) killed as much as one-third of Germany’s population, as mercenaries plundered civilians and civilians became mercenaries to try to survive. World War I reduced French production by nearly half, starved hundreds of thousands of Germans to death, and led to more than a decade of lower Soviet output. One estimate put World War I’s total cost at $400 billion – five times the value of everything in France and Belgium at the time. Battle casualties, war-induced epidemics, and other demographic disruptions have far-reaching effects. World War I contributed to the 1918 influenza epidemic that killed millions. Military forces in East Africa may have sparked the outbreak of what became a global AIDS epidemic. Quincy Wright estimates that â€Å"at least 10 percent of deaths in modern civilization can be attributed directly or indirectly to war† (Wright, 1942). The U. S. â€Å"baby boom† after World War II continues decades later to shape economic policy debates ranging from school budgets to social security. Wars also temporarily shake up gender relations (among other demographic variables), as when men leave home and women take war jobs to replenish the labor force, as in the Soviet Union, Britain, and the United States during World War II. Countries that can fight wars beyond their borders avoid the most costly destruction (though not the other costs of war). For example, the Dutch towards the end of the Thirty Years’ War, the British during the Napoleonic Wars, the Japanese in World War I, and the Americans in both World Wars enjoyed this relative insulation from war’s destruction, which meanwhile weakened their economic rivals. Also, just as wars’ costs and outcomes affect economic conditions and evolution, so too do economic conditions and evolution affect war. Causality runs in both directions. For example, Dutch economic strengths in the early 17th century allowed fast and cheap production of ships, including warships. The resulting naval military advantage in turn supported Dutch long-distance trade. The wealth derived from that trade, in turn, let the Netherlands pay and train a professional standing army, which successfully sheltered the Netherlands from the ruinous Thirty Years’ War. This protection in turn let the Dutch expand their share of world trade at the expense of war-scarred rivals. Thus the evolutions of warfare and of world economic history are intertwined. War is the proximal cause of the recurring inflationary spikes that demarcate 50-year â€Å"Kondratieff waves† in the world economy. Those waves themselves continue to be controversial. However, they may have some predictive value to the extent they clarify the historical relationships between war and military spending on the one hand, and inflation and economic growth on the other. The 1990s mainly followed a predicted long-wave phase of sustained low inflation, renewed growth, and reduced great-power military conflict. If this pattern were to continue, the coming decade would see continued strong growth but new upward pressures on military spending and conflict, eventually leading to a new bout of inflation in the great-power economies. Since scholars do not agree on the mechanism or even the existence of long economic waves, however, such projections are of more academic than practical interest. The relationship between military spending and economic growth has also generated controversy. Despite its pump-priming potential in specific circumstances, as during the 1930s, military spending generally acts to slow economic growth, since it diverts capital and labor from more productive investment (such as in roads, schools, or basic research). During the Cold War, high ilitary spending contributed (among other causes) to the economic stagnation of the Soviet Union and the collapse of North Korea, whereas low military spending relative to GDP contributed to Japan’s growth and innovation. During the 1990s, as real military spending worldwide fell by about one-third, the United States and others reaped a â€Å"peace dividend† in sustained expansion. However, effects of military spending are long-term, and sh arp reductions do not bring quick relief, as Russia’s experience since 1991 demonstrates. The global North-South divide – a stark feature of the world economy – is exacerbated by war. The dozens of wars currently in progress worldwide form an arc from the Andes through Africa to the Middle East and Caucasus, to South and Southeast Asia. In some of the world’s poorest countries, such as Sudan and Afghanistan, endemic warfare impedes economic development and produces grinding poverty, which in turn intensifies conflicts and fuels warfare. To conclude, you have read about the good and bad things of war effects on the economy. War has drained wealth, disrupted markets, and depressed economical growth. But, the winners of these wars often were rewarded from these wars. War is bad overall; I feel that war should be the last option for any country. Works Cited Washigntonsblog. â€Å"Proof that war is bad for the economy. † 24 Feb. 2012. < http://www. washingtonsblog. com/2012/02/debunking-the-myth-that-war-is-good-for-the-economy-once-and-for-all. html>. Symonds, Peter. â€Å"US wages over war†. 7 Oct. 2012. < http://www. globalresearch. ca/us-wages-economic-war-on-iran/5307485. > < http://www. joshuagoldstein. com/jgeconhi. htm. > <upsky2. triod. com/science/economics/waraffectseconomy. html. > <Www, joshuagoldstein. com/igeconhi. htm. >

Struggles of a Single Mother going to College Essays

Struggles of a Single Mother going to College Essays Struggles of a Single Mother going to College Essay Struggles of a Single Mother going to College Essay Essay Topic: Mother To Mother The three year old needs help to the potty. Dinner is in the oven and thirty minutes until time for work. Single Mothers do this all the time, nothing new, now add college to the mix, such challenging times. Single mothers face several struggles such as: finding time to study, getting back to good study habits, and not having a good support system. Being a single mother going to college it is hard finding time to study. Having to work full time while going to school is very hard, but it can be done. It is also a struggle to Juggle family time in with time for study. Children are so demanding, the younger they are the more demanding they become for ones time. Some find time to study during breaks at work, while others study during the childs nap time. Single moms also find time to study while the children are doing their homework. It is always an awesome thing for the children to see mom devote time to her studies. Hang in there, there results will be worth it at the end. It is also a struggle to get back into good study habits. One sometimes finds It more fun to play with their children rather than study. Allow 20 minutes a day to study. Keeping a written dally schedule on a pocket calendar is a good way to stay on task. Another way to develop good study habits is to write homework down. Also write down when tests are due on the calendar. When you check your emails, also check the calendar dally. Dont be discouraged, consider the struggles as exciting, and motivational, It really can be fun. Life sometimes gets overwhelming for a single mother, and not having a good support system would be even more challenging. Not having a steady babysitter would seem disastrous. Enlist a family member to set with the child. Some are discouraged because one doesnt understand the material one Is working hard on. A church member Is maybe good at English. A coworker maybe good at math. The more people that know a single mom Is going to college the more support one obtains. The church member Is good at English and offers to help with the struggles In that course, while the coworker Is good at math. No matter what struggles one Is going through, with a good support system, one will make It through. Now that you have read about some challenges a single mom may face going back to school, understand that with determination and hard work It can be done. The struggle of having a good support system, time to study, and use good study habits gets overwhelming sometimes. Remember the ways to help the struggles to become challenges to meet. Then they become Like brownie badges you have earned. One will receive a degree at the end and hopefully a better Job. Struggles of a Single Mother going to College By vertebrae back into good study habits. One sometimes finds it more fun to play with their children rather than study. Allow 20 minutes a day to study. Keeping a written daily the calendar. When you check your emails, also check the calendar daily. Dont be discouraged, consider the struggles as exciting, and motivational, it really can be fun. Scourged because one doesnt understand the material one is working hard on. A church member is maybe good at English. A coworker maybe good at math. The more people that know a single mom is going to college the more support one obtains. The church member is good at English and offers to help with the struggles in that course, while the coworker is good at math. No matter what struggles one is going through, with a good support system, one will make it through. Now that you understand that with determination and hard work it can be done. The struggle of challenges to meet. Then they become like brownie badges you have earned.

Profession of Arms Essay Example

Profession of Arms Essay Example Profession of Arms Essay Profession of Arms Essay a medical doctor doing surgery, a lawyer arguing a brief before the bar, or an Army commander synchronizing the various elements of combat power in a modern COIN environment. Since the members of the society served are utterly dependent on these professionals for their health, justice, and security, a deep moral obligation rests on the profession, and its professionals, to use their unique capabilities only in the best interests of that society, and not in their own interests. All professionals inherently are servants, morally bound to an ethic of non-exploitation via their expertise. Thus military professions are generally considered â€Å"social trustee† professions in that their life blood is the trust in which the society holds them to acquire the knowledge and expertise to do something that the society cannot do for itself, but yet without which the society cannot survive; and to use that expertise according to the values held by the client. The fields of medicine, theology, law, and more recently the military have traditionally been organized in western societies as a social trustee form of profession. Effectiveness, not efficiency, is the key to the work of professionals- the sick want a cure, the sinner wants absolution, the accused want exoneration, and the defenseless seek security. To be sure, all clients in any professional field want efficient service, but effectiveness- truly efficacious results from the profession’s expert practice- is their overriding goal. Thus, professions are self-forming, self-regulating, and self-initiating organizations for the provision of expert services to a client which the profession is ethically constrained not to exploit in its own self-interest. The servant ethic of professions is therefore characterized as cedat emptor, â€Å"let the taker believe in us. † The Army’s professional ethic is built on trust with the American people, as well as with civilian leaders and junior professionals within the ranks. In contrast, other government occupations generally do not work with expert knowledge; they are designed to do socially necessary, repetitive tasks with efficiency (e. g. , a state Department of Motor Vehicles). Such bureaucracies ely on structure and process, formalization and differentiation of roles and tasks, centralized management, and standard operating procedures. Being efficient producers of non-expert work, they survive over the long term by competing successfully among other bureaucracies for necessary resources. They focus little on developing their personnel, as most can be easily replaced by acquiring and training new personnel. It follows from these descriptions that the means of motivation and so cial control within a profession- its Ethic- is also quite distinct from those of a business or a government occupation. The client (i. e. , the American people in the case of the Army) trusts the profession to produce the expert work when and where needed. And because of the client’s trust in the profession’s expert knowledge and practice, the American people are willing to grant significant autonomy to professions to create their own expert knowledge and to police the application of that knowledge by individual professionals. An exemplary Ethic is thus a necessity for the Profession of Arms to retain such trust from the American people. Further, the profession must actively self-police the use of its Ethic, precluding to the extent possible any incidents that serve to undermine America’s trust in the effectiveness of their Army or its Ethic, e. g. , the strategic failure at Abu Ghraib, the failures at Walter Reed Medical Center, the terrorist massacre at Ft. Hood, and the more recent failures at Arlington Cemetery). Further, while businesses and government occupations traditionally motivate their workers by reliance on extrinsic factors such as salary, benefits, promotions, etc. professions in contrast use means of social control that are more inspirational, largely intrinsic factors such as the life-long pursuit of truly expert knowledge, the privilege and honor of service, the satisfaction of nurturing and protecting life and enabling society to flourish, and the social status of membership in an ancient, honorable, and revered occupational group that self-polices it membership. Thus true Army professionals are always more personally motivated by the intrinsic aspects of their service, rather than by its extrinsic factors. We can fairly summarize this discussion by noting that an organizational ontinuum exists along which every Army command and unit finds itself every day. While this will be explained in more detail in a subsequent discussion on culture, here we simply restate the facts: the Army has a dual character, it is both a military profession and a governmental occupation and these two types of organizations have different cultures and behaviors, following different ethics. The end points of this continuum of organizational culture are described in the chart below; and it clearly is a continuum, with every Army organization reflecting some aspects of each. Based on their assigned mission, there may be an optimum balance between professional and occupational behavior that differs across Army organization types. A supply depot, for example, and a brigade combat team may rightly differ in character based on their profession/occupation mix. COMPARISONPROFESSIONGOVERNMENT OCCUPATION KnowledgeExpert, abstract and practical; requires life-long learning and certificationNon-expert; quickly learned on the job largely through training vs. ducation/development PracticeKnowledge applied with discretion to new situations by individual professionalsRepetitive situations, work done by following SOPs, administrative rules, and procedures Key to SuccessFocus on effectiveness of applied practicesFocus on efficiency of resources used Culture/EthicGranted autonomy to practice within a self-policing ethicClosely supervised; imposed governmental ethic InvestmentsPriority investment in developing individual professionalsPriority investment in hardware/softwa re, routines, and systems GrowthIndividuals develop coherent rofessional worldviewA worldview is unnecessary to the work MotivationIntrinsic, altruistic toward client; work is a callingExtrinsic: work is a job for personal gain LeadershipDevelops leaders who inspire and transform effective professionals Trains managers who focus on efficient processes and systems Table 1-1. A Continuum: Profession to Government Occupation. The goal of all Army leaders, obviously, is to create everywhere within the Army the culture of a Profession of Arms while making subservient the cultural influences of necessary supporting occupational organizations. One way to understand how professions conform their supporting organizations is the concept of a â€Å"professional† bureaucracy as opposed to a â€Å"machine† bureaucracy, which we will introduce and explain in Section 3. 3. In concluding this section, we must always remember that the Army is not a profession just because it says it is. In fact, the Army does not get to decide if it is a profession. That prerogative belongs to our client, the American people, who will do so each day depending on how our Army performs and how trustworthy they perceive it to be. In other words, status as a profession must be earned every day in the trust relationship the Army maintains with the society it serves and defends. Section 2. 3 The Army’s Expertise and Jurisdictions At a more detailed level of analysis, all modern professions display at least three common traits: they create and maintain their own expert knowledge (expertise); they apply that expertise to a situation or arena wherein their client wants it applied (a jurisdiction); and after a period of time, depending on their effectiveness, they will have established a relationship of trust with the client (legitimacy). The Army’s premier expertise is the art and science of fulfilling its military purposes stated earlier from Title 10. They need not be restated here, other than to note the amazing breadth of expertise that is needed to be militarily effective under the new concept of Operational Adaptability across the full spectrum of operations. To create and maintain that broad expertise, the Army must continually develop its own professionals with constantly renewed expert knowledge that can be conceptually grouped into our fields: MILITARY-TECHNICAL FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to conduct offense, defense, and stability or civil support operations on land at each of strategic, operational, and tactical levels; MORAL-ETHICAL FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to fight those wars morally, as the American people expect and as domestic and international laws require; POLITICAL-CULTURAL FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to operate effectively in our own and othe r cultures across organizational and national boundaries, including the vital fields of civil-military relations and media-military relations; and, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to socialize, train, educate and develop civilians to become Soldiers and then to develop those Soldiers to be leaders within and future stewards of the profession. Clearly it is not the case that every Army Professional is to be equally expert in all fields of knowledge. Rather, the development of individual professionals is a process of life-long learning which combines training, education, and operational experience with emphasis among the fields of expert knowledge, shifting as one progresses through a career or, for some, progresses from generalist to specialist. But, as we will see later, the changing way in which the Army now pursues irregular warfare has significantly changed the relative importance of the fields of knowledge, shifting for example the need for expertise in political and cultural knowledge to much earlier in the career of combat arms leaders. The external jurisdictions within which the Army operates, most recently renegotiated within the Joint arena in 2006 with civilian leaders and the other services, are currently four. The Army is to be prepared to apply its expertise to: major combat operations, strategic deterrence, stability operations, and homeland security. More important to the dialogue advanced by this White Paper, however, are the two internal jurisdictions that exist within all professions. They are: 1) the development and maintenance of their expert knowledge; and 2) the development of human practitioners to apply that knowledge with expertise and character gained from years of study and practice. In more clear Army language these two internal jurisdictions are known as military doctrine and leader (and Soldier) development. It hould be clear from just these few insights into the nature of professions that the most critical field of knowledge for the Army is the last, developing Soldiers and leaders who can p ractice expertly and morally the military knowledge that the Army creates. Ultimately, the Army can have the most advanced technology possible, but without capable and adaptive Soldiers to use it, all is in vain. So, the two points to be made here are: every professional Soldier has to have a modicum level of expert knowledge in all four fields to be effective; and, a robust leader development system is simply the sine qua non for a professional Army. Establishing priorities for adequate investments in Soldier and leader development remains, however, one of the most vexing challenges facing the Army as a Profession of Arms and its strategic leaders. Section 2. 4 The Practice of the Army Professional The specific practice of the Army professional, irrespective of rank or position, is the â€Å"repetitive exercise of discretionary judgment† to bring about effective results to the situation under his or her purview, and done in ways consistent with the professional ethic–whether a combat patrol or a major budget decision. The essence of this definition is that true professionals control their own work, most often no one tells the professional what to do or how to do it; their actions are discretionary. Think of a leader on patrol in Iraq or Afghanistan, or a senior leader in the Pentagon. How many times in the course of a day will they make a highly discretionary judgment, one not announced by a formula or computer, rather drawn primarily from their years of accumulated knowledge and experience? That is the practice of the military professional’s art, many times a day, followed up by actions to implement their decisions. Second, most all of these repetitive discretionary judgments have a high degree of moral content, where decisions will directly and rather immediately impact on the life of another human being, whether subordinate Soldier and family, the enemy, or an innocent on the battlefield. Such judgments must therefore be rendered by Army professionals of well developed moral character and with the ability to reason in moral frameworks. Such was the case in the battle of Wanat, July 2008 in Afghanistan, where leaders at multiple levels of command from infantry company upward each made discretionary judgments as to how best to use available resources to establish a new combat outpost in the Korengal Valley. Ultimately the final review of this battle established that these leaders, despite the loss of seven Army Soldiers KIA and twenty-seven WIA while successfully repelling an enemy attempt to overrun the outpost, each had made judgments that were reasonable and prudent based on what they knew at the time. While the loss of Army Soldiers forever remains a tragedy, the senior reviewer’s conclusion as to what caused them is instructive for our understanding of the Profession of Arms and the moral discretion that Army leaders must exercise: It is critical that we not mechanically equate U. S. casualties with professional error or misconduct. In war battle is the mechanism by which we defeat the enemy. In battle, casualties are inevitable. Regrettably they are often the price of victory. Thus in a stark and poignant example we see that one critical aspect of professions is the significant autonomy that they are granted to do their work. Unlike many businesses and most government occupations, the Army as a profession is not highly regulated in its internal jurisdictions by the society it serves. No one tells the Army what to write in its doctrinal manuals (its expert knowledge), Army leaders have wide discretion in setting policies to educate and train its soldiers with that knowledge, and commanders in the field execute their operations with equally wide discretionary authority. The nature of war establishes this tenet of the Profession of Arms, and the more so now under the necessity to pursue decentralized counter-insurgency campaigns. As a result of the Army’s operational successes and transparent attempts as a profession to learn from its failures, the Army is currently highly trusted as compared to other public institutions. But there have been times in the past when the Army lost autonomy and some legitimacy with the American people when it failed to abide by and to self-police an Ethic approved by the client (e. g. , Aberdeen training scandal in the 1980s, Abu Ghraib more recently). In each case, for a time the Army became somewhat externally regulated, and lost some of the autonomy necessary to maintain its status as a profession. In summary, for professions the coin of the realm is trust, â€Å"may the client believe in us. † We will return to this critical discussion of trust in the last section of this White Paper. Section 2. 5 The Unique Role of Strategic Leaders of a Military Profession As introduced earlier, the continuous challenge for the strategic leaders of the Army, at least since the latter decades of the 19th century when the Army was professionalized, has been to keep its two internal natures of profession and government occupation organized as a hierarchical bureaucracy in proper balance, with profession predominant in all areas except those very few that are intrinsic to any large organization, such as the repetitive tasks of administration and some logistics. In today’s volunteer Army, and particularly within the commissioned and noncommissioned ranks, citizens volunteer with the intention and expectation of becoming professionals and being able to do their work in the physical environment and organizational culture of a profession–one that facilitates their individual development and then grants them significant autonomy to organize and execute their own work. The leadership challenge lies in the fact that Army leaders below the ranks of sergeant major, colonel, and general officer have insufficient authority and responsibility to deflect the institution away from any bureaucratic tendencies and to focus keenly on authentic professional practice. One prime example is the control such uniformed strategic leaders have over the personnel development, evaluation and certification, and assignment and utilization processes that will either motivate or de-motivate aspiring professionals and leaders as they progress through a career of service. Many of these systems may now be out of balance after nine years of continuous war, making the current challenge for Army strategic leaders palpable. At times it has been difficult for the Army’s strategic leaders to ensure that the profession had a correct balance between its internal developmental jurisdictions and its external operating jurisdictions. In such cases it did not have the right expert knowledge embedded in its professionals to practice when and where the client deemed appropriate. For example, after the fall of Baghdad in March of 2003, it became apparent that the Army fell somewhat short in maintaining this balance, including its obligations to junior members of the profession who were asked to fight a counterinsurgency campaign without the expert knowledge and the materiel support requisite to effectively doing so. To the credit of the heroic and highly adaptive leaders within the Army, and an example of the Army’s ability to recreate its own expertise, that situation was rectified in less than three years and new doctrine and practices were developed to affect the counter-insurgency campaigns from 2006 to today. As mentioned in the foreword, however, our task now as we transition form a decade of counterinsurgency operations is to restore balance in the Army capabilities along the full spectrum of anticipated operations. As this example demonstrates, the role of strategic leaders is more than critical as the Army simply cannot be a Profession of Arms unless they lead it to be one. Captains and Majors and the non-commissioned officer corps can make their own part of the Army more professional, but they do not control the levers of the major developmental systems within the Army. Further, the American people also care about this necessary balance. They want an expert, effective Army for the security of the Nation, one in which their sons and daughters can develop and mature through their service. They want the Army to be a self-policing, professional meritocracy wherein Soldiers and leaders are advanced solely as earned by their individual merits of competence and character. This leads us into discussions of Army culture and, at its core, the Army Ethic. These topics are the focus of the next sections of this paper. Section 3: Army Culture, and Influences on the Profession This section explains the nature and importance of US Army organizational culture, in terms of its influence on professional behavior. It describes the distinctive culture of the Army and explains why it takes this form. It shows how the interaction and â€Å"creative tension† between different dimensions of culture generally leads to adaptive, reliable and resilient behavioral styles and forms of organization. The section closes with a brief discussion of contemporary tensions within the culture that demand resolution. Section 3. 1 The Concept of Organizational Culture Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning held by organizational members†. Institutions – organizations that endure – have distinct and stable cultures that shape their behavior, even though they comprise many, ever-changing individuals. An organization’s culture generally reflects what it found (and perhaps still finds) to be functional in times of strong need. Military organizations are state instruments for the exercise of legitimised violence, and Soldiers are trained in the use of arms and bear arms as part of their routine duties. Because they have this distinct purpose, military organizations tend to develop deeply-held assumptions about what is appropriate and what is not. Culture goes beyond style into the spirit and soul of the body corporate. As with personality and character, culture is usually hard to describe, especially to people whose association with the organization is superficial. And it is even harder to measure. It is, in short, the â€Å"glue† that makes the Army, and its units and commands distinctive sources of identity and experience; it is essentially â€Å"how we do things around here. † Closely associated with an organization’s culture is its climate. In contrast to culture, which is more deeply embedded, organizational climate refers to Soldiers’ feelings and attitudes as they interact within the culture. A â€Å"zero defect† culture, for example, can create a climate where Soldiers feel they are not trusted and create attitudes where transparency and open dialog are not encouraged. Climate is often driven by tangible spects of the culture that reflect the organization’s value system, such as rewards and punishments, communications flow, operations tempo, and qua lity of leadership, which determine individual and team perceptions about the quality of the organization and their role within it. It is essentially â€Å"how we feel about this organization. † Unlike the more deeply embedded culture, climate is often considered to be alterable in the near term (e. g. , replace a toxic leader). Army culture has adapted over the 235 years of its history so, while it has many features in common with other western armies, it derives from experience in and of the American way of war. The Army has developed certain patterned ways of doing things according to its distinct jurisdiction and operational environment. What worked, especially in times of crisis, has become a set of rules – or rather, two sets of rules, one explicit and conscious, and the other implicit and unconscious – that are subsequently passed to new members. There are many ways, formal and informal, of passing on these â€Å"rules† to new members. The most obv ious is training, but organizational symbols, rituals, and social modelling of others’ behavior all play a part. Even though, with time, the assumptions on which these rules were/are based tend to drop out of people’s consciousness, yet their influence continues to be felt. Most Army people don’t ask, for example, why they are required to drill on parade grounds and to salute: they just accept both activities. But both drilling and saluting drive home powerful subliminal messages (as well as having functional rationale). Similarly, while the Seven Army Values that are one expression of the Army Ethic are articulated in artifacts such as value cards and posters, the values are felt at a more visceral level. The words express what is already in peoples hearts. Because of this they have quickly become accepted and unquestioned. In the same way, the Army’s belief in the importance of marksmanship, as reflected in marksmanship badges or, in the case of infantry, in the expert infantryman badge, reinforces assumptions that essentially go unchallenged: not just because they are marked by badges, but because marksmanship and infantry expertise are patently activities which the Army has consistently found to be highly functional over time. And although distinct sub-cultures also form in a variety of groups, such as the Army’s branches, e. g. , Infantry, Engineers, Artillery Armor, etc. , as each applies its unique expertise to its tasks with all converging in the operations of the Army, these sub-cultures usually share a general set of beliefs and assumptions about how things should be done. These are often manifested in icons, heroes, stories, and rituals that promote bonding among Soldiers. Stated again, culture is the glue that gives the Army and its units and commands distinctive sources of identity and codes of behavior by being the essential description and prescription of â€Å"how we do things around here†. While we would expect the perception of â€Å"what works† to change as circumstances change, the reaction to new circumstances is not always rational. A skill such as marksmanship is one of the eternal verities in the way that the Army does things, but the same is not necessarily true of all of its key functions. For example, the basic assumptions underlying the Cold War Army through to the mid-1990s resulted in a policy of equipping and preparing only to fight the â€Å"big war† in Europe. This was based on the assumptions such as national mobilization, host nation support, engagement with other coalition forces, the centrality of the Army division, and a belief in the power of technological superiority. So strong were these assumptions that they persisted even after being challenged in almost a decade of small, irregular conflicts in Somalia, Kosovo and Haiti in the 1990s and in the early years of post-9/11 engagement in Iraq and Afghanistan, as combat operations were increasingly occurring â€Å"among the people†. If a basic assumption comes to be strongly held within an institution, members will find behavior based on any other premise difficult to contemplate, even in the face of obvious difficulties. This will be all the more likely if career advancement depends on conforming to prevailing career paradigms, and if â€Å"mavericks† who challenge such paradigms are sidelined or sanctioned. But competition between operating paradigms can also lead to constructive tensions that make the Army culture dynamic and the institution responsive. Without such competition, there would often be no progress. Moreover, we would not expect sweeping change as the result of the acceptance of the new paradigm. This is not so much because military institutions are inherently conservative, but because there are certain consistencies between different ways of war, such as the premium given to mission accomplishment, persistence in the face of adversity, caring for one’s own, etc, all of which result in a degree of continuity of practice. In cultural terms, an important overall result is a deeply embedded warrior code that demands that all those bearing arms be capable of using them responsibly. Thus, even in the face of a far-from-perfect operating paradigm, the Army will manage to perform credibly, if not always optimally. Ironically, it is its very ability to do this that can delay the crunch time of facing up to the need for cultural change. And the contemporary Army can no longer afford years of delay before it accepts operational realities that persistently challenge the prevailing paradigms. In terms of current and near-future contexts, there is a crucial need for Army leaders to lift their performance in terms of recognizing and reacting to compelling signals for cultural change and leading the reshaping of Army culture. Concern about â€Å"hybrid threats† – the diverse and dynamic combinations of regular and irregular forces, both conventional and unconventional, as well as criminal elements – dominate current thinking about future armed conflict. The proper question is not whether the Army culture (or that of the armed forces in general) will change, but rather how and how quickly Army leaders should manage such a change. In the contemporary era, understanding the way that institutional culture shapes professional behavior is an essential senior leader competence. Self-awareness at the institutional level is as important as is self-awareness at the personal level. What cannot be understood cannot be changed. Section 3. 2 – Levels of Army Culture To understand the Army’s culture also requires an understanding that there are three levels within the Army’s culture. At the surface is the level of artifacts, which includes all the tangible phenomena that one sees, hears, and feels when operating in an Army unit. Artifacts include the visible products of the group, such as the architecture of its physical environment; its language, its technology and equipment; its symbols and artistic creations; its style, as embodied in uniforms, manners of address, and emotional displays; the myths and stories told about the organization; its published list of values; its observable rituals and ceremonies; and so on. Chain of command pictures in a unit’s ready room, for example, are artifacts reminding all viewers of the hierarchy of authority and responsibility that exists within the Army. The second level of the Army’s culture includes espoused beliefs and values- what the Army says is important. Beliefs and values at this conscious level will predict much of the behavior and tangible material that can be observed at the artifact level. For example the Seven Army Values that makes up one representation of the core of the Army Ethic manifests at the artifact level in values cards and posters . Further, the Army’s beliefs in the importance of marksmanship as reflected in marksmanship badges, or infantry expertise as reflected in the expert infantryman’s badge. At this second level of culture, if leaders allow disconnects between word and deed, gaps can be created between espoused values, and values in use- when Soldiers or leaders do not â€Å"walk the talk† in line with espoused Army beliefs and values. This creates confusion across the ranks and leads to dysfunctional and demoralizing behavior. For example, if the Army espouses the importance of Soldier and leader education and professional development but does not invest in it adequately, then Soldiers vote with their feet, depriving the Army of years of accumulated experience and exacerbating recruiting demands. However, if the beliefs and values are reasonably congruent with the Army’s deeper underlying assumptions, then the articulation of those values into a philosophy of operating (â€Å"how we do thing around here†) can be a powerful source to help create cohesion, unity of effort, and identity. Finally at the third, deepest level of culture are basic underlying assumptions. When a solution to a problem confronting the organization works repeatedly, it comes to be taken for granted. What was once a hypothesis, supported only by a hunch or a value, gradually comes to be treated as reality over time. Assumptions such as â€Å"Soldiers should be physically and mentally fit† become so assumed they are rarely ever discussed – only how can we make them fitter is a point of discussion. As should now be clear, one purpose of this White Paper, as the Army is in transition adapting to the new underlying assumptions associated with Operational Adaptability, is to foster a review of Army culture to ensure it is adapted appropriately and consistently at all three levels- artifacts, values and beliefs, and the basic underlying assumptions. Thus the necessity exists to understand and to include Army culture in our discussion. Section 3. 3 Army Culture and its Functional Utility The Army is not an easy entity to read. That said, we can identify three major cultural dimensions, derived from underlying assumptions about the way that an army should organize itself and its performance that clearly apply to the US Army. First, the behavior of Soldiers at all levels is guided by a strong sense of Professionalism. It is characterized by an ethos of striving for excellence, both in respect to the relevant functional specialty (e. g. infantry, transport, communications, aviation, e tc. ) and on developing combined-arms war fighting competencies.. This sense of professionalism also derives from members’ identification of goals and ideals of their service, and their adherence to the ethic of â€Å"service before self†and â€Å"duty first†. Second, the institution has a strong sense of Community, or Corporateness, a cohesion that develops as a result of belonging to the â€Å"professional family† and shared mission, purpose, and sacrifice. This is manifested in a strong sense of tribalism and clannishness, such as the â€Å"band of brothers† ethos. Third, the Army has a strong tendency towards Hierarchy, based on the logic f explicit and implicit authority distinctions in professional and social relationships. Although these three core dimensions have evolved over time for sound functional reasons, we should not necessarily expect perfect alignment or consistency between them. In fact, the dimensions exist in a pattern of creati ve tension, the outcome of which is usually effective organizational behavior. For example, because of their role of exercising legitimized violence, military organizations are invariably hierarchical, disciplined, rule-driven and conservative; given the destructive resources at their disposal, it would be irresponsible of them to be otherwise. A hierarchical ‘chain of command’ style of management communication allows leaders to exert close control over tasking and resource allocation, and the discipline that exists within units and the adherence of subordinate commanders to rules and standard operating procedures, within defined limits of discretion, makes the organization as a whole reliable and predictable. In some government occupations, this would result in the organizational form known as Machine Bureaucracy in which personal discretion of staff is neither needed nor wanted, and behavior is guided by strict adherence to elaborate rules and regulations. But in the Army and its supporting organizations there exist countervailing forces that militate against such a tendency. Military organizations indeed tend to be at some level bureaucratic, but preferably in the much more constructive form known as Professional Bureaucracy. The orientation of a professional bureaucracy is standardization of effective outcomes in an unstructured and uncertain environment. Professional bureaucracies rely for control on the specialist and discretionary expertise of highly-educated professionals, and their exercise of discretion is not only important but is demanded. Equally, hierarchy in the professional bureaucracy not only leads to organization and control of work activities but, just as importantly, provides its members with moral and contextual frames of reference. Procedures and hierarchy are as much about how and why the individual’s job fits into the overall mission as they are about doing things â€Å"by the book†. The hierarchical structure thus serves as a road-map to enhance each member’s understanding of where their contribution relates to that of others. The Army’s strong culture of Community also serves to alleviate any tendency towards behavior that is guided by rule-bound bureaucracy, and unthinking or automatic obedience. To begin with, the Army’s sense of Community acts to broaden its members’ sense of local identity by â€Å"developing the ‘I’ into the ‘we’†. This is the well-spring for cooperation and 360-degree loyalty and service derived from professional networks of â€Å"organized reciprocity and solidarity† and the basis of â€Å"swift trust†. These networks and the values on which they are based implicitly encourage members at all levels to exert themselves for the benefit of those in other sub-units and units, and to put the institution’s interests ahead of their own. This sense of Community is at the root of a commitment to provide an internal service that, in the absence of a profit motive, might bring no tangible benefit to the provider. It encourages Soldiers to trust their commanders, helps Soldiers’ families to trust the system and to feel part of the wider service community even when Soldiers are away on deployment. And, as noted by military historian John Keegan, the Army’s strong sense of Community is a disincentive for self-serving behavior, since self-serving opportunism erodes a Soldier’s standing in the network and hence his/her access to the benefits of cooperative action from others. The common values and modes of thought and language that derive from a strong sense of Army Community also helps in quickly and efficiently communicating command intentions and a host of other forms of networked behavior. Similarly, the social networks that are developed over a professional career again assist professionals in different parts of the Army to connect and communicate with fellow professionals elsewhere in the organization. Military sociologist Morris Janowitz called this feature â€Å"greasing the skids†, by which he meant making â€Å"the formal system work by means of the informal network of personal trust which binds the armed forces into a social organization†. This, he said, â€Å"infuses a basic ingredient of vitality† into an often massive organization. We have seen that sophisticated management of a strong culture is a vital ingredient in combat power. Almost as importantly, however, such management also creates intrinsic incentives for continued service of mid-career professionals, at the career/life stage when family pressures are increasing and the gap between potential earnings in the corporate sector (after the end of this recession) and in the military continue to widen. In summary, the interaction between various complex dimensions of culture creates a situation where the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. In this sense, a strong and sophisticated culture is a vital ingredient of combat power. Note that this is just as valid for the Generating Force as it is for the Operating Force. And the fulcrum is Professionalism, in the sense of both high performance standards and a strong sense of duty and service-before-self. That is to say: the stronger the Professional Ethic, the greater the leverage derived from the Army’s culture. Section 5 Conclusion Like other professions such as medicine and law, the military also requires that its actions are in service to and in accordance with the moral good they provide. For the Army, this is the defense of the rights to life and political autonomy of the people of the United States, and the viability of their government. Therefore, the Army must produce leaders that can turn their education and moral understanding into an organizational culture that supports the Army’s status and actions as a profession. The Nation grants jurisdiction and legitimacy to the Army as a profession because it trusts the Army to work with competence and character in the following jurisdictions: Major Combat Operations, Stability Operations, Strategic Deterrence, and Homeland Security. The Army’s enforcement, within its culture, of a professional Ethic that enables it to perform this duty with the moral values America endorses, protects and enhances our trust relationship with the American People. Let the dialogue begin: How will the Army best do this duty? James H. Toner, True Faith and Allegiance: The Burden Of Military Ethics (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1995): 22-23. See Les Brownlee and Peter Schoomaker, â€Å"Serving a Nation at War,† Parameters 34 (Summer 2004): 4-23. See Eliot Friedson, Professionalism The Third Logic: On the Practice of Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). It is also the case that the Army internally has several â€Å"enterprises† that manage Army-level systems, e. g. , material acquisition, etc. , on a not-for-profit basis using techniques sometimes adapted from businesses. Such enterprises do have many Army professionals serving within them, but beyond that they tend to be bureaucratic in their structure and operations, operating on annual budget cycles and following highly centralized and standardized management processes and procedures. See, Allan R. Millett and Peter Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America, Revised and Expanded ( NY: Free Press, 1994): 5. Huntington, Soldier and State, 16. For an excellent discussion of the negative impact of that issue on the Army Officer Corps, see Mark Lewis, â€Å"Army Transformation and the Junior Officer Exodus,† Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Fall 2004): 63-74. TRADOC/ARCIC Study of Army Culture, 2008. See T. O Jacobs and Michael G. Sanders, â€Å"Principles for Building the Profession: The SOF Experience,† Chapter 20 in Snider and Matthews (eds. ), The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition (NY: McGraw-Hill, 2005): 441-462. For major recent works on professions see, Andrew Abbott, The Theory of Professions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998) and, Eliot Freidson, Professionalism Reborn: Theory, Prophecy and Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994). David Segal and Karen DeAngelis, â€Å"Changing Conceptions of the Military Professions†, chapter 10 in Suzanne C. Nielsen and Don M. Snider (eds. , American Civil-Military Relations: The Soldier and the State in a New Era (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009): 194-212. For an explanation of the three main trust relationships of the Army as a profession of arms, see: Don M. Snider, Dissent and the Strategic Leadership of Military Professions (Carlisle, PA: U. S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 2008). See James Burk, Expertise, Jurisdiction and Legitimacy, chapter 2 in Don M. Snider and Lloyd J. Matthews (eds. ), The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 39-60. See, Richard Lacquement, â€Å"Mapping Army Expert Knowledge and Clarifying Jurisdictions of Practice,† chapter 9 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 213-236. Joint Publication 3. 0 Operations (pub data) See Don M. Snider, â€Å"The Army as Profession,† chapter 1 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 1-38. This conclusion was reached in a research project on the Army as profession in 2002; it is doubtful that it is invalid after nine years of war in which the Army had to rely more on its human than its technological capabilities. See Don M. Snider and Gail Watkins, â€Å"Project Conclusions,† chapter 25 in: The Future of the Army Profession, 1st Edition): 537-547. This widely acknowledged conclusion is more often given lip service that action; the Army’s human development systems remain in the industrial age, almost totally inadequate to the present and future needs of the profession. See the monograph series: Toward a US Army Officer Corps Strategy for Success by Casey Wardynski, David S. Lyle and Michael J Colarusso (Carlisle, PA: U. S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 2009-2010). See Don M. Snider, et. al, â€Å"The Multiple Identities of the Professional Army Officer,† chapter 6 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 143. This quotation is taken from a May 13, 2010 memorandum from General Charles Campbell to the Director of the Army Staff, LTC David Huntoon, subject, â€Å"Army Action on the Re-Investigation into the Combat Action at Wanat Village, Wygal District, Nuristan Province, Afghanistan on 13 July 2008, available at ( pub data). Cite poll data From the outset, the American military differed from other traditional professions in always being practiced in a bureaucratic setting, in being composed of people who in many cases did not have a lifelong commitment to their occupation, in having its autonomy constrained by respo nsibility to extra-professional (state) authority, and to explicitly being politically neutral. † Segal and DeAngelis, op. cit. See Leonard Wong and Don M. Snider, â€Å"Strategic Leadership of the Army Profession,† Chapter 28 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 601-624. A. L. Kroeber and C. Kluckhorn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (NY, 1952); Edgar Schein, Sense and nonsense about culture and climate, in Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate, ed. Neal M. Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom and Mark F. Peterson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2000), xxiii-xxx.. Joseph L. Soeters, in Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate, ed. Neal M. Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom and Mark F. Peterson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2000), 465-483; and Benjamin Schneider, David Bowen, Mark Ehrhart and Karen Holcombe, The climate for service: evolution of a construct, in Ashkanasy, Wilderom Peterson, op cit, 21-36. It is not surprising that the construct of ‘culture’ is still so fuzzy, given its stage of development. The concept of ‘personality’ is still somewhat fragmented, with a number of major competing paradigms – and this is a field of study that is more than a century old. In contrast, ‘organisational culture’ has been seriously studied in an academic sense, for less than three decades. Snider, Don M. 1999. â€Å"An Uninformed Debate on Military Culture. † Orbis 43(1): 11-16. HQ, TRADOC. 2009. Seeking Balance: US Army Culture and Professionalism in the 21st Century. Carl Builder, The Masks of War: American Military Styles in Strategy and Analysis (Rand Publications, 1989) 86-91. Snider, Don M. 1999. An Uninformed Debate on Military Culture.? Orbis 43(1): 11-16. Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 6. Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1960). Michael Ignatieff, The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience (London: Chatto Windus, 1998). Reference Capstone Doctrine. Nick Jans, with David Schmidtchen, The real C-cubed: Culture, careers and climate and how they affect military capability, Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No 143: Strategic Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University: 2002. Henry Mintzberg, The Structuring of Organizations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979); Henry Mintzberg, Managing government, governing management, Harvard Business Review, 74, 3 (1996) 75-83. The landmark study in this field, of regional economic performance in Italy, found over a 20-year period that social capital in ach region was a crucial factor in explaining differences in wealth creation, business innovation, entrepreneurship, and government performance. See Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). John Keegan , A History of Warfare (London, 1993), xv. Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, op cit, xvi-xvii. Reference TRADOC Study HQ, TRADOC. 2009. Seeking Balance: US Army Culture and Professionalism in the 21st Century. This list is, of course, not comprehensive. There are multiple sources of basic assumptions that inform culture and it is not possible to consider them all here. Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 6. For the purposes of this paper, I will use the word â€Å"soldier† to refer generically to any member of the military. I will capitalize â€Å"Soldiers,† â€Å"Marines,† â€Å"Sailors,† and â€Å"Airmen† when referring specifically to members of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force. George Will cite †¦ COL Tony Pfaff, â€Å"Resolving the Ethical Challenges of Irregular Warfare† (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 2010). need footnote on terminology †¦ Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007). Underwood, B. , Case, C. , and Hannah, S. Owning Our Army Ethic†, Military Review, 2010. A definition of human rights is contentious. To avoid controversy, the human rights in this paper are â€Å"thinly† conceived. This means the rights that matt er most in military operations are a small set of basic human rights consisting of the rights against torture, rape, unjustified killing, arbitrary imprisonment, access to basic subsistence, and personal liberty. This conception of human rights is both consistent with the founding of the United States and defensible as objective moral goods which serve as a founding source of the Army Ethic. In order to establish a moral basis for the Army Ethic we need to examine the good the Army provides. Field Manual 1 states the Army is the defender of â€Å"our way life. † However, achieving objectives or defending a â€Å"way of life,† are goals that many organizations could adopt as their purpose. Drug cartels, the mafia, or Al Qaeda, could easily make the same factual claim. They too are defending their ways of life. Another view of the Army’s purpose is that it provides for a â€Å"common defense. † Again, other organizations that practice collective violence can make the factual claim